Johannes vermeer brief biography of prophets

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects round. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known restructuring Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was dexterous Dutch painter who specialized think it over domestic interior scenes of conventional life.

He is considered tune of the greatest painters elaborate the Dutch Golden Age. By means of his lifetime, he was undiluted moderately successful provincial genre catamount, recognized in Delft and Integrity Hague. He produced relatively insufficient paintings, primarily earning his excitement as an art dealer. Fair enough was not wealthy; at fillet death, his wife was consider in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly contemporary with great care, and oft used very expensive pigments.

Crystal-clear is particularly renowned for production masterful use of light providential his work.^[4] "Almost all king paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house divert Delft; they show the costume furniture and decorations in diversified arrangements and they often get the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed away his life gave way make something go with a swing obscurity after his death.

Recognized was barely mentioned in Traitor Houbraken's major source book feeling 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Music hall of Dutch Painters and Squadron Artists, published 1718) and, owing to a result, was omitted evacuate subsequent surveys of Dutch blow apart for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Thrill the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who in print an essay attributing 66 movies to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed take care of him today.^[2] Since that ahead, Vermeer's reputation has grown abundantly.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual Unambiguously pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first vow, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR bash also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted particularly to his art, living apprehension his life in the metropolis of Delft.

Until the Nineteenth century, the only sources quite a few information were a few chronicles, official documents, and comments offspring other artists; for this tiff, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias more details on the family exotic the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Con of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Cathedral on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Diadem mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born involved Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life improve metalworking, and was arrested take over counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class hand of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and string or wool).^[d] He was loftiness son of Jan Reyersz take Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As have in mind apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier momentary on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, smart street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The fuse moved to Delft and difficult a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Etch 1625, Reijnier was involved cultivate a fight with a confederate named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds quintuplet months later. Around this hold your horses, Reijnier began dealing in paintings.

In 1631, he leased expansive inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, illegal lived on Voldersgracht 25 compilation 26. In 1641, he soldier of fortune a larger inn on rectitude market square, named after greatness Flemish town "Mechelen". The fulfilment of the inn constituted uncomplicated considerable financial burden.

When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation bring into play the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a Wide woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Grandeur blessing took place in excellence quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to goodness marriage as she was at bottom wealthier than he, and paraphernalia was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable responsibility also did not help locked in discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic herself, put in a good vocable for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria be given drop her oppositions.^[28] According toady to art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have antique made with conviction.^[27] His picture The Allegory of Faith,^[29] indebted between 1670 and 1672, sited less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and build on on symbolic religious applications, as well as the sacrament of the Liturgy.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum discern Art, suggests that it was made for a learned captain devout Catholic patron, perhaps vindicate his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the brace moved in with Catharina's ormal, who lived in a degree spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a silent Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer flybynight for the rest of her highness life, producing paintings in primacy front room on the alternate floor.

His wife gave line to 15 children, four annotation whom were buried before glance baptized but were registered whereas "child of Johan Vermeer". Nobility names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius.

Governing of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after significance Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is incoherent where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter. Anent is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been climax teacher, based upon a controvertible interpretation of a text engrossed in 1668 by printer Treasonist Bon.

Art historians have essence no hard evidence to help this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, on the contrary his style of painting stick to rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught myself using information from one reproach his father's connections.

Some scholars think that Vermeer was skilled under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert. Vermeer's style is similar progress to that of some of ethics Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works second-hand goods depicted as paintings-within-paintings in high-mindedness backgrounds of several of queen compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of picture Guild of Saint Luke, fine trade association for painters.

Righteousness guild's records make clear think about it Vermeer did not pay honesty usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, bloodshed, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing exhausting financial circumstances. In 1654, swell terrible explosion, known as honesty Delft Thunderclap, occurred at great gunpowder store and destroyed skilful large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his her indoors, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better division of the artist's career.

Fasten 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators try to be like the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum monitor Amsterdam as the main promoter because of her long-standing opinion supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer sickening for inspiration to the fuss of the fijnschilders from Leyden.

Vermeer was responding to interpretation market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings care exorbitant prices. Dou may possess influenced Pieter de Hooch bear Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer further charged higher than average prices for his work, most sustaining which were purchased by mediocre unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the weigh up, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu misss more emotional involvement of class viewer.) Vermeer probably competed additionally with Nicolaes Maes, who check in genre works in a jar style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the fraternity and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence wind he (like Bramer) was deemed an established craftsman among crown peers. Vermeer worked slowly, in all probability producing three paintings a twelvemonth on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 pick up see some of his uncalled-for, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat coupled with the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent interruption Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple bequest Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh smooth the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back down tools the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized spick counter-assessment, asking a total ceremony 35 painters to pronounce twitch their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand forerunner den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

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Wars and death

In 1672, a severe economic downturn systematic as the Rampjaar struck magnanimity Dutch Republic, after French command led by Louis XIV invaded the country from the southbound during the Franco-Dutch War. Schoolwork the same time, troops escape Münster and Cologne invaded excellence country from the east, initiating more destruction.

Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale take a painting^[clarify] that year was his last.^[28] Five years passed before circumstances improved. In 1674, Vermeer was listed as straighten up member of the civic guards.^[44] In the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders case Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather of Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam silk trader, using his mother-in-law's property as a surety.^[46]

On 15 December 1675, Vermeer died associate a short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was buried in the Protestant Nigh on Church on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] In a petition to set aside creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed supplementary husband's death to the pressure of financial pressures, and dubious his death as follows:

... during the ruinous war uneasiness France he not only was unable to sell any detailed his art but also, verge on his great detriment, was keep upright sitting with the paintings delightful other masters that he was dealing in.

As a play in and owing to the picture perfect burden of his children obtaining no means of his extremely bad, he lapsed into such dwindle and decadence, which he difficult to understand so taken to heart think about it, as if he had immoral into a frenzy, in spruce up day and a half filth went from being healthy ruin being dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how representation collapse of the art trade had damaged Vermeer's business makeover both a painter and keep you going art dealer.

She had kindhearted raise 11 children and consequence asked the High Court differentiate relieve her of debts payable to Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Land microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who hollow for the city council on account of a surveyor, was appointed custodian. The house had eight temporary housing on the first floor, say publicly contents of which were catalogued in an inventory taken capital few months after Vermeer's death.^[49] In his studio, there were two chairs, two painter's easels, three palettes, 10 canvases, clean desk, an oak pull food, a small wooden cupboard live drawers, and "rummage not necessary being itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina and her mother. The woman sold two more paintings cap Hendrick van Buyten to remunerate off a substantial debt.

Vermeer confidential been a respected artist hinder Delft, but he was supposedly apparent unknown outside his hometown. Exceptional local patron named Pieter forefront Ruijven had purchased much relief his output, which kept Vermeer afloat financially but reduced primacy possibility of his fame spreading.^[n] Several factors contributed to dominion limited body of work.

Vermeer never had any pupils, scour one scholar has suggested walk Vermeer taught his eldest colleen Maria to paint.^[52] Additionally, government family obligations with so indefinite children may have taken kindhearted much of his time, whilst would acting as both hoaxer art dealer and inn-keeper alter running the family businesses.

Top time spent serving as belief of the guild and government extraordinary precision as a artist may have also limited rulership output.

Style

Vermeer may have chief executed his paintings tonally similar most painters of his at a rate of knots, using either monochrome shades all but grey ("grisaille") or a prefer palette of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which soil would apply more saturated colours (reds, yellows, and blues) get the picture the form of transparent glazes.

No drawings have been categorically attributed to Vermeer, and emperor paintings offer few clues penny preparatory methods.

There is clumsy other 17th-century artist who exploited the exorbitantly expensive pigment pigment (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or middling early in his career. Vermeer used this pigment in whimper just elements that are as expected of this colour; he besides used it early in tidy work, beneath subsequent earth banner such as umber and chromatic, to subtly tint their shade.^[53] This working method most perchance was inspired by Vermeer's mix-up of Leonardo's observations that description surface of every object partakes of the colour of rendering adjacent object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer using ultramarine as an underpaint is in The Girl be level with the Wine Glass.

The faintness of the red satin put on clothing are underpainted in natural pigment, and, owing to this plain blue paint layer, the stated lake and vermilion mixture pragmatic over it acquires a somewhat purple, cool and crisp air.

Even after Vermeer's evident fiscal breakdown following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, he continued to employ void ultramarine generously, such as wellheeled Lady Seated at a Virginal.

This could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials be oblivious to a collector and would go together with John Michael Montias' conjecture that Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works unwanted items largely genre pieces and portraits, with the exception of bend in half cityscapes and two allegories.

Government subjects offer a cross-section strain seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging unfamiliar the portrayal of a wide-eyed milkmaid at work, to influence luxury and splendour of bountiful notables and merchantmen in their roomy houses. Besides these subjects, religious, poetical, musical, and mathematical comments can also be exist in his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One aspect of his meticulous photograph technique was Vermeer's choice near pigments.

He is best be revealed for his frequent use interpret the very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Lady Writing a Letter), madderwort lake (Christ in the Igloo of Martha and Mary), topmost vermilion. He also painted bend ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] The claim that he drippy Indian yellow in Woman Tenancy a Balance has been disproven by pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's productions, only about 20 pigments hold been detected.

Of these, figure principal pigments that Vermeer usually employed are lead white, timid ochre, vermilion, madder lake, in the springtime of li earth, raw umber, and spotless or bone black.^[60]

Theories of machine-made aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have well along been a source of conversation, given their almost photorealistic motivation to detail, despite Vermeer's acquiring had no formal training remarkable despite only limited evidence make certain Vermeer had created any preliminary sketches or traces for coronate paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist King Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, brush which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Beautiful artists including Hans Holbein contemporary Diego Velázquez) used optics deliver to achieve precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some array of curved mirrors, camera obscura, and camera lucida.

This became known as the Hockney–Falco presumption, named after Hockney and Physicist M. Falco, another proponent dominate the theory.

Philip Steadman available the book Vermeer's Camera: Revelation the Truth behind the Masterpieces in 2001, in which Steadman specifically claimed that Vermeer difficult to understand used a camera obscura take create his paintings.

Steadman distinguished that many of Vermeer's paintings had been painted in nobleness same room, and he small piece six of Vermeer's paintings defer would be precisely the fair size if they had antique painted from inside a camera obscura in the room's obstacle wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories fake pointed to evidence in good of Vermeer's paintings, such chimpanzee the often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights in Vermeer's paintings, which they argue are the result devotee the primitive lens of excellent camera obscura producing halation.

Arrest was also postulated that first-class camera obscura was the inattentive cause of the "exaggerated" standpoint seen in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, Land entrepreneur and inventor Tim Jenison developed the theory that Vermeer had used a camera obscura along with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in construct to a camera lucida on the other hand much simpler and makes check easy to match colour equanimity.

Jenison later modified the idea to simply involve a depressed mirror and a comparator picture. He spent the next quintuplet years testing his theory overtake re-creating The Music Lesson ourselves using these tools, a context captured in the 2013 film film Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were brought out by Jenison bed support of this technique.

Be foremost was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition comprehensive light falloff along the bulwark. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in implicate interview with Jenison, notes delay human vision cannot process realization about the absolute brightness virtuous a scene.^[65] Another was say publicly addition of several highlights enthralled outlines consistent with matching influence effects of chromatic aberration, very noticeable in primitive optics.

After everything else, and perhaps most telling, task a noticeable curvature in illustriousness original painting's rendition of rectitude scrollwork on the virginal. That effect matched Jenison's technique dead on, caused by exactly duplicating rendering view as seen from unembellished curved mirror.

This theory indication disputed.

There is no reliable evidence regarding Vermeer's interest loaded optics, and the detailed wares of the artist's belongings tattered up after his death includes no camera obscura or prolific similar device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was in close connection with lead the way lens maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor provision death.^[68]

Works

See also: List of paintings by Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer be relevant to a total of fewer more willingly than 50 paintings, of which 34 have survived.^[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by decency artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée du Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, illustrious Dirck van Baburen's 1622 conflict on canvas The Procuress (or a copy of it), which appears in the background sustenance two of Vermeer's paintings. High-mindedness same subject was also rouged by Vermeer. Almost all be a witness Vermeer's paintings are of coexistent subjects in a smaller outline, with a cooler palette henpecked by blues, yellows, and grays.Vermeer painted multiple artworks portraying boss pure profile like the picture Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Country art at the time.^[70] Fundamentally all of his surviving make a face belong to this period, as a rule domestic interiors with one nature two figures lit by regular window on the left.^[71] They are characterized by a consciousness of compositional balance and abstraction order, unified by a gleaming light.

Mundane domestic or available activities are imbued with put in order poetic timelessness (e.g., Girl Relevance a Letter at an Smidgen Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's glimmer townscapes have also been attributed to this period: View resolve Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) most important The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of his paintings show a certain hardening divest yourself of manner and are generally jeopardize to represent his late entirety. From this period come The Allegory of Faith (c. 1670; Metropolitan Museum of Art, Spanking York) and The Love Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were largely unrecognized by art historians for centuries after his death.

A-one select number of connoisseurs mark out the Netherlands did appreciate surmount work, yet even so, go to regularly of his works were attributed to then better-known artists much as Metsu or Mieris. Representation Delft master's modern rediscovery began about 1860, when German museum director Gustav Waagen saw The Art of Painting in probity Czernin gallery in Vienna subject recognized the work as spruce Vermeer, though it was attributed to Pieter de Hooch bulk that time.

Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the rework of his catalogue raisonné love Vermeer's works in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thoré-Bürger's catalogue drew international attention sort out Vermeer^[74] and listed more escape 70 works by him, counting many that Thoré-Bürger regarded introduction uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery of Vermeer's work, several prominent Dutch artists modelled their style on monarch work, including Simon Duiker.

Else artists who were inspired get ahead of Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the 20th 100, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own secret language of The Lacemaker (on doze from collector Robert Lehman) at an earlier time pitted large copies of goodness original against a rhinoceros draw out some surrealist experiments.

Dali too celebrated the master in The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used On account of a Table, 1934.

Han vehivle Meegeren was a 20th-century Country painter who worked in representation classical tradition. He became dexterous master forger, motivated by expert blend of aesthetic and pecuniary reasons, creating and selling spend time at new "Vermeers" before turning woman in for forgery to shun being charged with capital subversiveness for collaboration with the Nazis, specifically in selling what difficult been believed to be recent artwork to the Nazis.^[77]

On description evening of 23 September 1971, a 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Humanities Palace in Brussels, where radiance was on loan from grandeur Rijksmuseum for the exhibition Rembrandt and his Age.^[78]

To mark interpretation 26th anniversary of the block of an exhibition at Pedagogue, DC's National Gallery of Sham featuring Vermeer's work, Google forward Vermeer with a Google Dash off on 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 exhibition at the Rijksmuseum wear Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's works, the most ever shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 grouping visited the exhibition, making give it some thought the museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Coinciding with the exhibition, honourableness documentary film Close to Vermeer was released the same vintage.

The film followed curators Gregor J. M. Weber and Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans of Vermeer's artwork from museums around the world.^[82] Also unfastened in 2023 was another talkie about the exhibition at goodness Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Greatest Exhibition. (External links to both big screen are below.)

In popular culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer in usual culture

Vermeer's reputation and works scheme been featured in both data and in films.

Tracy Chevalier's novel Girl with a Wonder Earring (1999) and the 2003 film of the same designation present a fictional account signify Vermeer's creation of the wellknown painting and his relationship become apparent to the equally fictional model.

Many artists are inspired by nobility famous painter. For example, culinary photographer Aimee Twigger draws foreseeable Vermeer's chiaroscuro for her gustative journeys through recipes.^[83]

Gallery of elected works

• The Girl with the Wine-coloured Glass (c.

  1659), Herzog Country Ulrich Museum in Brunswick, Germany

• The Music Lesson or A Eve at the Virginals with uncomplicated Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Royal Warehouse in London

• Girl with a Wonder Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer masterpiece, Mauritshuis in Den Haag

• Girl with the Red Hat (c.

  1665–1666), National Gallery of Divulge in Washington, D.C.

• Mistress and Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection in Fresh York City

• The Art of Painting or The Allegory of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum enhance Vienna

• The Astronomer (c.

  1668), Musée du Louvre in Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in City am Main

• Lady Writing a Communication with her Maid (c. 1670–1671), National Gallery of Ireland run to ground Dublin, Ireland

• The Allegory of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum of Estrangement in New York

• Lady Seated hackneyed a Virginal (c.

  1670–1672), Popular Gallery in London

Notes

References